History Of Halloween

OXFORD UTOMO

Assigment

Name : Rafaella Adelia
Reg. Number : 210800101
Level : Komputer II
Date : May 28th 2009
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Halloween falls on October 31th each year in North America and other parts of the world. What do you know about Halloween? Do you celebrate it in your country? Here is a little history about it.
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Like many other holidays, Halloween has evolved and changed throughout history. Over 2,000 years ago people called the Celts lived in what is New Year's Day. They believed that the night before the New Year (October 31) was a time when the living and the dead came together.
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More than a thousand years ago the Christian church named November 1 All Saints Day (also called All Hallows.) This was a special holiday honor the saints and other people who died for their religion. The night berfore All Hallows was called Hallows Eve. Later the name was changed to Halloween.
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Like the Celts, the Europeans of that time also believed that the spirits of the dead would visit the earth on Halloween. They worried that wvil spirits would cause problems of hurs them. So on that night people wore costumes that looked like ghosts or other evil creatures. They thought if they dressed like that, the spirits would think they were also dead and not harm them.
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The tradition of Halloween was carried to America by the immigrating Europeans. Some of the treaditions changed to little, though. For example, on Halloween in Europa some people would carry lantems made from tumips. In America, pumpkins were more common. So people began puttin cadles inside them and using them as anterns. That is why you see Jack 'o lanterns today.
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These days Halloween is not usuallly considered a religious holiay. It is primarily a fun day for children. Children dress up in costumes like people did a thousand years ago. But instead of worrying about evil spirits, they go from house to house. They knock on doors and say "trick or treat". The owner of each house gives candy of something special to each trik or treater.

Albert Einstein (biography)

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Wurttemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. in 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare tim, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returnig to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his pos in 1945.

After world War II , Einstein was a leading figure in the World Govermetn Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizman in estlishing the Hebrew University of Jerusallem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific woek, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanich and his special theory of relativity stemmed from and attempt to reconcile tha laws of mechanics wiht the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statictical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory : this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations to the problems of the theory of radiation and statictical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the constuction of unifiels field theories, although he contunued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanichs by his development of the quantum of theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probablities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towrads the unification of the basic con cepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chroniced and his more important works include Special Theory of Brownian Movement (1962), and the Evolution of Physics (1983). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American unversities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Feloowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Meda of the royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Lowenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.
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Taken from : nobelprize

Aristotle (biography)

Greek philosopher who advocated reason and moderation. He maintained that sense experience is our only source of knowledge, and that by reasoning we can discoverthe essences of things, that is, their distinguishing qualities. In his works on ethics and politics, he suggested that human happiness consists in living in conformith with nature. He deriveved his political theory from the recognition that mutual aid is natural to humankind, and refused to set up any one constitution as universally ideal. Of Aristotle's works, around 22 treatises survive, dealing with logic, metaphysics, physics, astronomy, meteorology, biolgy, physchology, ethichs, politics, adn literary criticism.

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Aristotle was born in Stagira in Thrace and studied in Athens, where he became a distinguished member of the Academy founded by Plato. He then opened a shool at Assos. At this time he regarded himself as a Platonist, but his subsequent thought led him further from the teaditions that had formed his early bachground and he was later critical of Plato. In about 344 BC he moved in Lesvos, and devoted the next two years to the study of natural history. Maenwhile, during residence at Assos, he had married Pyhhias, niece and adopted daughter of Hermeias, ruler of Atarnues.
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In 342 BC he accepted an invitation from Philip II of Mavedon to go to Pella as tutor to Philip's son Alexander the Great. In 335 BC he opened a shool in th Lyceum (grove sacred to Apollo) in Athends. It became known as the 'peripatic school' because he walked up and down as he talked, and his works are a collection of his lecture notes. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Aristotle was forced to flee to Chalcis, where he died.
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Among his many contributions to political though were the first systematic attempts do distinguish between different forms of goverment, ideas about the role of law in the state, and the conception of a science of politics.
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In the Poetics, Aristotle defines tragic drama as an imitation (mimesis) of the actions of human beings, with character subotdinated to plot. The audience is affected by pity and fear, but experiences a purgation (cathrasis) of these emotions through watching the play. The second book of the Poetics, on comedy, is lost. The three books of Rhetoric form the earliest analytical duscussion of the techniques of persuasion, and the last presents a theory of the emotions to which a speakeer must appeal.
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His works were the lost to Europe after the decline of Rome, but they were reintroduced in the Middle Ages by Arab and Jewish scholars and became the basis of medieval scholasticism.
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His major writings on cosmology, or astronomy, ate brought together in the rour-volume Peri ouranou/On the Heavens. Aristotle refected tho notion of infinith and the notion of a vacum. A vacum he held to be impossibe because on object moving in it would meet no resistance and would there fore attain infinite velocit. Spave could not be infinete, becuse in Aristotle's view, the universe consisted of a series of comcertic spheres which rotated around the centrally placed, stationary Earth. If the outermost sphere were an ifinite distance from the Earth, it would he nable to complete its rotation within a finite period of time, in particular within the 24-hour period in which the stars, fixed, as Aristotle beleived, to the sphere, rotated around the Earth.
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Aristotle's work in astronomy also included proving that the Earth was spherical. He observed that the Earth cast a circular shadow on the Moon during an eclopse and he pointed outh that as one travelled north or south, the stars changed their positions. Aristetle overestimated the Earth's diameter by only 50%.
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Aristotle saw nature as always sriving to perfect itself. The principle of life he termed a soul, which he regarded as the frorm of the lie\ving creature, not as a subtance seperable from it, The intellect he believed, can discover in sense ompressions the unversal, and sice the soul thus transceds matter, it must be immortal. Art embodies nature, buy in a more perfect fashion. its ene being the purifying and ennobling of the affections. The essence of beauty is order and symmetry. Aristotle also frist classified organisms into spiecies and genera.
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Taken from : Encyclopeia